2014). Their overrepresentation among the worlds best 2017). 2017; Skoglund et al. During the first admixture event 1.8 kya, the European component is best resembled by present-day northwestern Europeans, whereas during the second pulse 300 years ago, the European component is more closely related to contemporary southwestern Europeans (Vicente, Priehodov, et al. (2016), Arauna et al. 2016; Vicente, Priehodov, et al. #DominanceDisciplineDirection. ADMIXTURE plots are shown for K = 2 to K = 12. (2012), Mallick et al. Additional infectious diseases that have been major targets of selection in Africa include HIV-1, trypanosomiasis (i.e., African sleeping sickness), smallpox, and tuberculosis (Karlsson et al. 1. The Sahel/Savannah belt was formed with the aridification of the Sahara Desert 5.5 kya (Manning and Timpson 2014), pushing human populations, among others, southward closer to the tropical rainforest, which demarcates the southern border of the belt. 2020). East Africans, it seems, is more suitable for hard physical labor than other countries. 2016; Bergstrm et al. 2015). then you got the germans and eastern europeans who also generally have very good genetics for muscle size. Nevertheless, African huntergatherers have the highest level of genetic diversity of extant populations and represent the most deeply branching human lineages even after accounting for recent admixture (Henn et al. Studies of genome-wide data largely confirmed the North African population structure inferred from uniparental markers while emphasizing fine-scale population structure (Henn et al. 2022). 2018). 2012). 2012). Mystery DNA like 95% of the genes and genomes for humans comes from Africa, and why did it happen. 2014; Gouveia et al. 2021). 2022). Hunting and gathering was the predominant subsistence strategy prior to the introduction of agriculture and pastoralism during the Neolithic (i.e., 126.5 kya in Africa) (Marshall and Hildebrand 2002). 2020). 1). 2015; Vicente, Priehodov, et al. 2011). 2017). 2013; Johnson et al. READ THE RULES BEFORE POSTING. These are some genes I saw on here that carry an advantage 2017; Vicente, Jakobsson, et al. However, Durvasula and Sankararaman (2020) did not find evidence for introgression at the MUC7 locus when they applied a novel statistical method (ArchIE) that identifies introgressed segments based on multiple population genetics statistics to western African genomes. 2018). 2. 2012). 2017; Serra-Vidal et al. 2022). 2022). Note that the results of ADMIXTURE analysis are contingent on which populations are included, as well as their sample sizes. 2022), it is imperative that ongoing efforts to sequence diverse populations on the African continent need to be expanded. 2020). Genetic studies showed that the spread of Bantu languages, agricultural practices, and iron use 53 kya was accompanied by multiple migration waves of Bantu speakers from western Africa (i.e., current eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon) to other regions in sub-Saharan Africa (Tishkoff et al. 2014). 2018), and African population history is of exceptional interest to human evolution. Higher values of FST are indicative of greater population structure. Once 2011; Lachance et al. (R35GM133727). 2017; Fortes-Lima et al. For a more granular review of the demographic histories in light of the transatlantic slave trade of admixed population in the Americas, see Fortes-Lima and Verdu (2021). 2023). Thus, there were ample opportunities for admixture between modern humans and archaic hominins. (2019), and Fortes-Lima et al. HaplotypeA set of linked genetic variants that are coinherited. 2011; Pennarun et al. This estimate is broadly consistent with the estimated coalescence times of North African-specific mtDNA lineages (44 21.6 kya for the U6 lineage, 13.0 5.7 kya for the U6a1 lineage, and 13.5 3.7 kya for the U6a* lineage) and Y chromosome haplogroups (1512 kya for E-M78 in most populations and 4430 kya in Tunisian Imazighen) (Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. Additionally, putatively selected regions also included genes unrelated to height, such as genes associated with reproduction, thyroid function, and immune traits, among others (Jarvis et al. For instance, two APOL1 haplotypes (G1 and G2) are protective against trypanosomiasis infection but are also associated with increased risk of kidney disease in African ancestry populations (Pereira et al. 2020). 1. 2016). In fact, the genetic variation found outside of Africa is largely a subset of African genetic diversity (Tishkoff et al. 2022). These EAHG groups are more closely related to each other than to other African huntergatherer groups (Scheinfeldt et al. 2017; Vicente, Jakobsson, et al. 2019). 2018; Van De Loosdrecht et al. For a detailed review of the spread of lactase persistence in Africa, see Campbell and Ranciaro (2021). 2018). 2020a). An additional central Khoe-Sanrelated ancestry component has been identified in more recent studies that leveraged bigger and more diverse data sets (Uren et al. Despite the evidence for archaic admixture, it cannot be ruled out that deep population structure confounds the inference of archaic ghost introgression in Africa (Ragsdale et al. However, an FDA-approved test to inform the dosage of the anticoagulant warfarin surveys genetic variants that are not as relevant to Africans. 3A), with deserts and rainforests acting as major barriers to gene flow (fig. 2014; Schlebusch et al. This understanding together with knowledge of its interactions with sociocultural factors that influence disease risk or treatment response can improve clinical care by improving the accuracy of genetic testing and/or assessment of therapeutic response (Hindorff et al. 2019; Fortes-Lima et al. Despite what is described here, we have only provided an overview of admixture events in the course of major migratory events, for example, the expansion of Bantu speakers. Arid desert environments also present an evolutionary challenge in Africa. 2015) and present-day Afro-Asiatic speakers (fig. 2021; Gonzlez-Santos et al. However, none of the populations characterized by the central Khoe-San component showed significant evidence of being a mixture between northern and southern Khoe-San groups (Montinaro et al. Although modern humanNeanderthal interbreeding most likely occurred in Eurasia after the OOA migration (possibly in the Levant) (Lazaridis et al. Finally, we explore the biomedical implications of population structure in Africa on health and disease and call for more ethically conducted studies of genetic variation in Africa. 2014; Schlebusch et al. Consequently, the Bantu expansion extensively contributed to population structure due to differential levels of admixture with and replacement of local huntergatherer groups over the past 3,500 years (Skoglund et al. 3. Africa exhibits vast cultural and linguistic diversity, including a wide range of subsistence strategies and 2,000 spoken languages. Take care!! In the following subsections, we discuss major migration events that have shaped population structure in Africa during the past 10,000 years. A direct link between Afro-Asiaticspeaking eastern African (i.e., Amhara- or Oromo-related ancestry) and southern African pastoralists has been established by showing that a 1,200-year-old individual from southern Africa, who has genetic similarities with modern Khoekhoe-speaking pastoralist groups (e.g., the Nama), traces 40% of their ancestry to a Eurasian admixed group related to a 3,100-year-old pastoralist individual from Luxmanda, Tanzania (Skoglund et al. Uniparental markersMitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomes, which are transmitted exclusively maternally or paternally without recombination. This European-related ancestry was most likely indirectly introduced into the Fulani via admixture with a northern African population (e.g., a Mozabite-like population; fig. However, the distribution of these African ancestries varies between different populations in the Americas, with western/central African-related ancestry being more common in the northern parts, for example, the United States, and south-eastern African-related ancestry being more common in the southern parts, for example, Brazil (Gouveia et al. (2021). 2019; Durvasula and Sankararaman 2020; Schaefer et al. As expected, the Sahara, Red Sea, central African rainforest, and the Kalahari Desert act as ecological barriers. Fine-mappingThe processes of refining the location of trait-associated variants in the genomic region of interest to identify likely causal variants based on association statistics and linkage disequilibrium patterns. 2019; Fortes-Lima et al. 2020). Despite recent progress, African populations are still dramatically underrepresented in genetic studies, and more studies of African genetic variation and population structure are needed. However, the possibility of archaic ghost admixture is also supported by fossil records from across Africa, indicating that modern humans spatially and temporally overlapped with hominins exhibiting archaic features (Harvati et al. Several studies have revealed a sex-biased gene flow in SAC that supports the historical records indicating that almost all mixed marriages were between a male settler and either a free Black female (where the man bought the slave their freedom) or an indigenous Khoe-San female (Patterson et al. During the last few centuries, European colonization of the Cape by the Dutch, Germans, and French, later followed by British seizure and rule, contributed to the complex admixture patterns at the Western Cape. Several candidate loci under selection have been identified that are likely implicated in the short stature of RHG groups as they overlap with genes associated with bone synthesis (e.g., EHB1 and PRDM5), muscular development (e.g., OBSCN and COX10), and growth hormone synthesis and secretion in the pituitary gland (e.g., HESX1 and ASB14) (Jarvis et al. For a comprehensive review of Sahelian populations demographic history, including Niger-Congospeaking populations, we refer to ern et al. (2017), Crawford et al. 2013; Patin et al. This gives them remarkable elasticity in their skin, which allows the skin to react to the strain. But fish is a source of carbohydrates, which can be easily digested and used by the body. 2012; Hsieh, Veeramah, et al. Thus, this study indicates that admixture of Khoe-San groups with eastern African pastoralists occurred at least 1.2 kya (fig. These studies have shown that a patient's demographic medical and genetic information can be used for clinical decision-making or genetic counseling (Batai et al. 2019; Fan et al. Effective population size (Ne)The number of breeding individuals in an idealized randomly mating population. 2014). 1. WebRT @DRXIDAGXD: Only African christians in Africa were east Africans and not west Africans last time I checked a religious map and genetic studies shows Ethiopians are nowhere In line with the OOA model, many human populations experienced a major decline in Ne coinciding with the OOA migration 7050 thousand years ago (kya) (Bergstrm et al. In light of this, we call for more (responsibly conducted) studies of genetic variation in Africa and research capacity building on the African continent. Lucas-Snchez M, Font-Porterias N, Calafell F, Fadhlaoui-Zid K, Comas D. Lucas-Snchez M, Serradell JM, Comas D. Marcus J, Ha W, Barber RF, Novembre J. Martin AR, Teferra S, Mller M, Hoal EG, Daly MJ. 2012; Arauna et al. 4A; Prendergast et al. As their genetic diversity is still significantly higher after accounting for recent admixture with nonKhoe-San groups, it reflects their historically larger Ne (Kim et al. Choudhury A, Sengupta D, Ramsay M, Schlebusch C. Coelho M, Sequeira F, Luiselli D, Beleza S, Rocha J. Hamid I, Korunes KL, Beleza S, Goldberg A. 2018). This admixture is evident from 3,000-year-old Late Neolithic individuals from Kelif el Boroud, Morocco, who are best modeled as a mixture of Ifri nAmr or Moussa and European Neolithic groups (Fregel et al. 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